Official name	Amsterdam
settlement type	Municipality/city
Flag size	120px
Image shield	Amsterdam.svg
Shield size	120px
Nickname	Mokum, Venice of the North
Motto	Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig''(Valiant, Steadfast, Compassionate)''
Map caption	Location of Amsterdam
Coordinates display	inline,title
Coordinates region	NL
Subdivision type	Country
Subdivision name	Netherlands
Subdivision type1	Province
Subdivision name1	North Holland
Subdivision type2	COROP
Subdivision name2	Amsterdam
Parts type	Boroughs
Parts	Boroughs
Leader title	Mayor
Leader name	Eberhard van der Laan
Leader party	Labour Party
Leader title1	Aldermen
Leader name1	Lodewijk AsscherEric van der BurgAndrée van EsCarolien GehrelsFreek OsselMaarten van PoelgeestEric Wiebes
Leader title2	Secretary
Leader name2	Henk de Jong
Area footnotes
Area total km2	219
Area land km2	166
Area water km2	53
Area metro km2	1815
Elevation m	2
Elevation footnotes
Population as of	31 December 2010
Population total	780,152
Population density km2	3506
Population urban	1209419
Population metro	2158592
Population blank1 title	Randstad
Population blank1	6659300
population blank1 title	Demonym
population blank1	Amsterdammer
Timezone	CET (UTC+01)
Timezone dst	CEST (UTC+02)
Postal code type	Postal codes
Postal code	1011–1109
Area code	020
Website	www.amsterdam.nl }}

Amsterdam (; Dutch ) is the largest city and the capital of the Netherlands. The current position of Amsterdam as capital city of the Kingdom of the Netherlands is governed by the constitution of 24 August 1815 and its successors. Amsterdam has a population of 783,364 within city limits, an urban population of 1,209,419 and a metropolitan population of 2,158,592. The city is in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. It comprises the northern part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe, with a population of approximately 7 million.

Its name is derived from ''Amstelredamme'', indicative of the city's origin: a dam in the river Amstel. Settled as a small fishing village in the late 12th century, Amsterdam became one of the most important ports in the world during the Dutch Golden Age, a result of its innovative developments in trade. During that time, the city was the leading center for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the city expanded, and many new neighbourhoods and suburbs were formed. The 17th-century canals of Amsterdam (in Dutch: 'Grachtengordel'), located in the heart of Amsterdam, were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in July 2010.

The city is the financial and cultural capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and 7 of the world's top 500 companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2010, Amsterdam was ranked 13th globally on quality of living by Mercer, and previously ranked 3rd in innovation by 2thinknow in the Innovation Cities Index 2009.

The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city centre. Amsterdam's main attractions, including its historic canals, the Rijksmuseum, the Van Gogh Museum, Stedelijk Museum, Hermitage Amsterdam, Anne Frank House, Amsterdam Museum, its red-light district, and its many cannabis coffee shops draw more than 3.66 million international visitors annually.

History

The earliest recorded use of the name "Amsterdam" is from a certificate dated 27 October 1275, when the inhabitants, who had built a bridge with a dam across the Amstel, were exempted from paying a bridge toll by Count Floris V. The certificate describes the inhabitants as ''homines manentes apud Amestelledamme'' (people living near ''Amestelledamme''). By 1327, the name had developed into ''Aemsterdam''. Amsterdam's founding is relatively recent compared with much older Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean that there was already a settlement then since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat, used as fuel.

Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306. From the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely because of trade with the Hanseatic League. In 1345, an alleged Eucharistic miracle in the Kalverstraat rendered the city an important place of pilgrimage until the adoption of the Protestant faith. The ''Stille Omgang''—a silent procession in civil attire—is today a remnant of the rich pilgrimage history.

In the 16th century, the Dutch rebelled against Philip II of Spain and his successors. The main reasons for the uprising were the imposition of new taxes, the tenth penny, and the religious persecution of Protestants by the Spanish Inquisition. The revolt escalated into the Eighty Years' War, which ultimately led to Dutch independence. Strongly pushed by Dutch Revolt leader William the Silent, the Dutch Republic became known for its relative religious tolerance. Jews from the Iberian Peninsula, Huguenots from France, prosperous merchants and printers from Flanders, and economic and religious refugees from the Spanish-controlled parts of the Low Countries found safety in Amsterdam. The influx of Flemish printers and the city's intellectual tolerance made Amsterdam a centre for the European free press.

The 17th century is considered Amsterdam's ''Golden Age'', during which it became the wealthiest city in the world. Ships sailed from Amsterdam to the Baltic Sea, North America, and Africa, as well as present-day Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, and Brazil, forming the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the largest share in both the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company. These companies acquired overseas possessions that later became Dutch colonies. Amsterdam was Europe's most important point for the shipment of goods and was the leading Financial Centre of the world. In 1602, the Amsterdam office of the Dutch East India Company became the world's first stock exchange by trading in its own shares.

Amsterdam lost over 10% of its population to plague in 1623–1625, and again in 1635–1636, 1655, and 1664. Nevertheless, the population of Amsterdam rose in the 17th century (largely through immigration) from 50,000 to 200,000.

Amsterdam's prosperity declined during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The wars of the Dutch Republic with England and France took their toll on Amsterdam. During the Napoleonic Wars, Amsterdam's significance reached its lowest point, with Holland being absorbed into the French Empire. However, the later establishment of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815 marked a turning point.

The end of the 19th century is sometimes called Amsterdam's second Golden Age. New museums, a train station, and the Concertgebouw were built; in this same time, the Industrial Revolution reached the city. The Amsterdam-Rhine Canal was dug to give Amsterdam a direct connection to the Rhine, and the North Sea Canal was dug to give the port a shorter connection to the North Sea. Both projects dramatically improved commerce with the rest of Europe and the world. In 1906, Joseph Conrad gave a brief description of Amsterdam as seen from the seaside, in ''The Mirror of the Sea''. Shortly before the First World War, the city began expanding, and new suburbs were built. Even though the Netherlands remained neutral in this war, Amsterdam suffered a food shortage, and heating fuel became scarce. The shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed. These riots are known as the ''Aardappeloproer'' (Potato rebellion). People started looting stores and warehouses in order to get supplies, mainly food.

Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 and took control of the country. Some Amsterdam citizens sheltered Jews, thereby exposing themselves and their families to the high risk of being imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. More than 100,000 Dutch Jews were deported to Nazi concentration camps. Perhaps the most famous deportee was the young Jewish girl Anne Frank, who died in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. At the end of the Second World War, communication with the rest of the country broke down, and food and fuel became scarce. Many citizens traveled to the countryside to forage. Dogs, cats, raw sugar beets, and Tulip bulbs—cooked to a pulp—were consumed to stay alive. Most of the trees in Amsterdam were cut down for fuel, and all the wood was taken from the apartments of deported Jews.

Many new suburbs, such as Osdorp, Slotervaart, ''Slotermeer'', and ''Geuzenveld'', were built in the years after the Second World War. These suburbs contained many public parks and wide, open spaces, and the new buildings provided improved housing conditions with larger and brighter rooms, gardens, and balconies. Because of the war and other incidents of the 20th century, almost the entire city centre had fallen into disrepair. As society was changing, politicians and other influential figures made plans to redesign large parts of it. There was an increasing demand for office buildings and new roads as the automobile became available to most common people. A metro started operating in 1977 between the new suburb of Bijlmer and the centre of Amsterdam. Further plans were to build a new highway above the metro to connect the Central Station and city centre with other parts of the city.

The incorporated large-scale demolitions began in Amsterdam's formerly Jewish neighbourhood. Smaller streets, such as the ''Jodenbreestraat'', were widened and saw almost all of their houses demolished. During the destruction's peak, the ''Nieuwmarktrellen'' (Nieuwmarkt riots) broke out, where people expressed their fury about the demolition caused by the restructuring of the city. As a result, the demolition was stopped, and the highway was never built, with only the metro being finished. Only a few streets remained widened. The new city hall was built on the almost completely demolished ''Waterlooplein''. Meanwhile, large private organisations, such as ''Stadsherstel Amsterdam'', were founded with the aim of restoring the entire city centre. Although the success of this struggle is visible today, efforts for further restoration are still ongoing. The entire city centre has reattained its former splendor and, as a whole, is now a protected area. Many of its buildings have become monuments, and in July 2010 the ''Grachtengordel'' (Herengracht, Keizersgracht, and Prinsengracht) was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Geography

Amsterdam is part of the province of North-Holland and is located in the west of the Netherlands next to the provinces of Utrecht and Flevoland. The river Amstel terminates in the city centre and connects to a large number of canals that eventually terminate in the IJ. Amsterdam is situated 2 metres above sea level. The surrounding land is flat as it is formed of large polders. To the southwest of the city lies a man-made forest called ''het Amsterdamse Bos''. Amsterdam is connected to the North Sea through the long North Sea Canal.

Amsterdam is intensely urbanized, as is the Amsterdam metropolitan area surrounding the city. Comprising 219.4 square kilometres of land, the city proper has 4,457 inhabitants per km² and 2,275 houses per km². Parks and nature reserves make up 12% of Amsterdam's land area.

Climate

Amsterdam has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb''), strongly influenced by its proximity to the North Sea to the west, with prevailing westerly winds. Winters are mild. Amsterdam, as well as most of the North-Holland province, lies in USDA Hardiness zone 9, the northernmost such occurrence in continental Europe. Frosts mainly occur during spells of easterly or northeasterly winds from the inner European continent. Even then, because Amsterdam is surrounded on three sides by large bodies of water, as well as enjoying a significant heat-island effect, nights rarely fall below , while it could easily be in Hilversum, 25 kilometres southeast. Summers are moderately warm but rarely hot. The average daily high in August is , and or higher is only measured on average on 3 days, placing Amsterdam in AHS Heat Zone 2. Days with measurable precipitation are common, on average 186 days per year. Amsterdam's average annual precipitation is . A large part of this precipitation falls as light rain or brief showers. Cloudy and damp days are common during the cooler months of October through March.

Cityscape and architecture

Amsterdam fans out south from the Amsterdam Centraal railway station. The Damrak is the main street and leads into the street Rokin. The oldest area of the town is known as ''de Wallen'' (the quays). It lies to the east of Damrak and contains the city's famous red light district. To the south of de Wallen is the old Jewish quarter of Waterlooplein. The 17th century canals of Amsterdam, known as the ''Grachtengordel'', embraces the heart of the city where homes have interesting gables. Beyond the Grachtengordel are the former working class areas of Jordaan and de Pijp. The Museumplein with the city's major museums, the Vondelpark, a 19th century park named after the Dutch writer Joost van den Vondel, and the Plantage neighbourhood, with the zoo, are also located outside the Grachtengordel.

Several parts of the city and the surrounding urban area are polders. This can be recognized by the suffix ''-meer'' which means ''lake'', as in Aalsmeer, Bijlmermeer, Haarlemmermeer, and Watergraafsmeer.

Canals

The Amsterdam canal system is the result of conscious city planning. In the early 17th century, when immigration was at a peak, a comprehensive plan was developed that was based on four concentric half-circles of canals with their ends emerging at the IJ bay. Known as the ''Grachtengordel'', three of the canals were mostly for residential development: the ''Herengracht'' (where "Heren" refers to ''Heren Regeerders van de stad Amsterdam'' (ruling lords of Amsterdam), and ''gracht'' means canal, so the name can be roughly translated as "Canal of the lords"), ''Keizersgracht'' (Emperor's Canal), and ''Prinsengracht'' (Prince's Canal). The fourth and outermost canal is the ''Singelgracht'', which is often not mentioned on maps, because it is a collective name for all canals in the outer ring. The Singelgracht should not be confused with the oldest and most inner canal ''Singel''. The canals served for defense, water management and transport. The defenses took the form of a moat and earthen dikes, with gates at transit points, but otherwise no masonry superstructures. The original plans have been lost, so historians, such as Ed Taverne, need to speculate on the original intentions: it is thought that the considerations of the layout were purely practical and defensive rather than ornamental. Construction started in 1613 and proceeded from west to east, across the breadth of the layout, like a gigantic windshield wiper as the historian Geert Mak calls it – and ''not'' from the centre outwards, as a popular myth has it. The canal construction in the southern sector was completed by 1656. Subsequently, the construction of residential buildings proceeded slowly. The eastern part of the concentric canal plan, covering the area between the Amstel river and the IJ bay, has never been implemented. In the following centuries, the land was used for parks, senior citizens' homes, theaters, other public facilities, and waterways without much planning.

Over the years, several canals have been filled in, becoming streets or squares, such as the Nieuwezijds Voorburgwal and the Spui.

Expansion

After the development of Amsterdam's canals in the 17th century, the city did not grow beyond its borders for two centuries. During the 19th century, Samuel Sarphati devised a plan based on the grandeur of Paris and London at that time. The plan envisaged the construction of new houses, public buildings and streets just outside the ''grachtengordel''. The main aim of the plan, however, was to improve public health. Although the plan did not expand the city, it did produce some of the largest public buildings to date, like the ''Paleis voor Volksvlijt''.

Following Sarphati, ''Van Niftrik'' and ''Kalff'' designed an entire ring of 19th century neighbourhoods surrounding the city’s centre, with the city preserving the ownership of all land outside the 17th century limit, thus firmly controlling development. Most of these neighbourhoods became home to the working class.

In response to overcrowding, two plans were designed at the beginning of the 20th century which were very different from anything Amsterdam had ever seen before: ''Plan Zuid'', designed by the architect Berlage, and ''West''. These plans involved the development of new neighbourhoods consisting of ''housing blocks'' for all social classes.

After the Second World War, large new neighbourhoods were built in the western, southeastern, and northern parts of the city. These new neighbourhoods were built to relieve the city's shortage of living space and give people affordable houses with modern conveniences. The neighbourhoods consisted mainly of large housing blocks situated among green spaces, connected to wide roads, making the neighbourhoods easily accessible by motor car. The western suburbs which were built in that period are collectively called the ''Westelijke Tuinsteden''. The area to the southeast of the city built during the same period is known as the ''Bijlmer''.

Architecture

Amsterdam has a rich architectural history. The oldest building in Amsterdam is the Oude Kerk (Old Church), at the heart of the Wallen, consecrated in 1306. The oldest wooden building is ''het Houten Huys'' at the Begijnhof. It was constructed around 1425 and is one of only two existing wooden buildings. It is also one of the few examples of Gothic architecture in Amsterdam. In the 16th century, wooden buildings were razed and replaced with brick ones. During this period, many buildings were constructed in the architectural style of the Renaissance. Buildings of this period are very recognizable with their stepped gable façades, which is the common Dutch Renaissance style. Amsterdam quickly developed its own Renaissance architecture. These buildings were built according to the principles of the architect Hendrick de Keyser. One of the most striking buildings designed by Hendrick de Keyer is the Westerkerk. In the 17th century baroque architecture became very popular, as it was elsewhere in Europe. This roughly coincided with Amsterdam’s Golden Age. The leading architects of this style in Amsterdam were Jacob van Campen, Philip Vingboons and Daniel Stalpaert. Philip Vingboons designed splendid merchants' houses throughout the city. A famous building in baroque style in Amsterdam is the Royal Palace on Dam Square. Throughout the 18th century, Amsterdam was heavily influenced by French culture. This is reflected in the architecture of that period. Around 1815, architects broke with the baroque style and started building in different neo-styles. Most Gothic style buildings date from that era and are therefore said to be built in a neo-gothic style. At the end of the 19th century, the Jugendstil or Art Nouveau style became popular and many new buildings were constructed in this architectural style. Since Amsterdam expanded rapidly during this period, new buildings adjacent to the city centre were also built in this style. The houses in the vicinity of the Museum Square in Amsterdam Oud-Zuid are an example of Jugendstil. The last style that was popular in Amsterdam before the modern era was Art Deco. Amsterdam had its own version of the style, which was called the Amsterdamse School. Whole districts were built this style, such as the ''Rivierenbuurt''. A notable feature of the façades of buildings designed in Amsterdamse School is that they are highly decorated and ornate, with oddly shaped windows and doors.

The old city centre is the focal point of all the architectural styles before the end of the 19th century. Jugendstil and Art Deco are mostly found outside the city’s centre in the neighbourhoods built in the early 20th century, although there are also some striking examples of these styles in the city centre. Most historic buildings in the city centre and nearby are houses, such as the famous merchants' houses lining the canals.

Government

The administration of the municipality of Amsterdam is divided into 15 boroughs or ''stadsdelen''; the central one, Centrum, being circled by Westerpark, Bos en Lommer, De Baarsjes, Oud-West, Oud-Zuid, Oost/Watergraafsmeer, Zeeburg and Amsterdam-Noord, with the six outer boroughs (Westpoort, Geuzenveld-Slotermeer, Osdorp, Slotervaart, Zuideramstel, and Zuidoost) creating a further encirclement. On 1 May 2010, the number of boroughs was reduced to eight (Centrum, Noord, Oost, Zuid, West, Nieuw-West, Zuidoost, and Westpoort).

Definitions

"Amsterdam" is usually understood to refer to the municipality of Amsterdam. Colloquially, some areas within the municipality, such as the village of Durgerdam, may not be considered part of Amsterdam. Statistics Netherlands uses three other definitions of Amsterdam: metropolitan agglomeration Amsterdam (''Grootstedelijke Agglomeratie Amsterdam'', not to be confused with ''Grootstedelijk Gebied Amsterdam'', a synonym of ''Groot Amsterdam''), Greater Amsterdam (''Groot Amsterdam'', a COROP region) and the urban region Amsterdam (''Stadsgewest Amsterdam''). These definitions are not synonymous with the terms urban area and metropolitan area, which are commonly used in English speaking countries for the purpose of defining large conurbations. The Amsterdam Department for Research and Statistics uses a fourth conurbation, namely the City region Amsterdam. This region is similar to Greater Amsterdam but includes the municipalities Zaanstad and Wormerland. It excludes Graft-De Rijp.

The smallest of these areas is the municipality, with a population of 742,981 in 2006. The metropolitan agglomeration had a population of 1,021,870 in 2006. It includes the municipalities of Zaanstad, Wormerland, Oostzaan, Diemen and Amstelveen only, as well as the municipality of Amsterdam. Greater Amsterdam includes 15 municipalities, and had a population of 1,211,503 in 2006. Though much larger in area, the population of this area is only slightly larger, because the definition excludes the relatively populous municipality of Zaanstad. The largest area by population, the Amsterdam Metropolitan Area (Dutch: Metropoolregio Amsterdam), has a population of 2,22 million. It includes for instance Zaanstad, Wormerveer, Muiden, Abcoude, Haarlem, Almere and Lelystad but excludes Graft De Rijp. Amsterdam is part of the conglomerate metropolitan area Randstad, with a total population of 6,659,300 inhabitants.

City government

As with all Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is governed by a mayor, aldermen, and the municipal council. However, unlike most other Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is subdivided into eight "stadsdelen" (boroughs), a system that was implemented in the 1980s to improve local governance. The stadsdelen are responsible for many activities that had previously been run by the central city. The city had initially been divided into 15 stadsdelen. 14 of those had their own council, chosen by a popular election. The 15th, Westpoort, covers the harbour of Amsterdam, had very few residents, and was governed by the central municipal council. Local decisions are made at borough level, and only affairs pertaining to the whole city, such as major infrastructure projects, are handled by the central city council.

National government

Amsterdam is the capital of the Netherlands in a technical legal sense. The present version of the Dutch constitution mentions "Amsterdam" and "capital" only in one place, chapter 2, article 32: The king's confirmation by oath and his coronation take place in "the capital Amsterdam" ("''de hoofdstad Amsterdam''"). Previous versions of the constitution spoke of "the city of Amsterdam" ("''de stad Amsterdam''"), without mention of capital. In any case, the seat of the government, parliament and supreme court of the Netherlands is (and always has been, with the exception of a brief period between 1808 and 1810) located at The Hague. Foreign embassies are also in The Hague. The capital of North Holland is Haarlem.

Symbols

The coat of arms of Amsterdam is composed of several historical elements. First and centre are three St Andrew's crosses, aligned in a vertical band on the city's shield (although Amsterdam's patron saint was Saint Nicholas). These St Andrew's crosses can also be found on the cityshields of neighbours Amstelveen and Ouder-Amstel. This part of the coat of arms is the basis of the flag of Amsterdam, flown by the city government, but also as civil ensign for ships registered in Amsterdam. Second is the Imperial Crown of Austria. In 1489, out of gratitude for services and loans, Maximilian I awarded Amsterdam the right to adorn its coat of arms with the king's crown. Then, in 1508, this was replaced with Maximilian's imperial crown when he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor. In the early years of the 17th century, Maximilian's crown in Amsterdam's coat of arms was again replaced, this time with the crown of Emperor Rudolph II, a crown that became the Imperial Crown of Austria. The lions date from the late 16th century, when city and province became part of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. Last came the city's official motto: ''Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig'' ("Heroic, Determined, Merciful"), bestowed on the city in 1947 by Queen Wilhelmina, in recognition of the city's bravery during the Second World War.

Economy

Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. Amsterdam is currently one of the best European cities in which to locate an International Business. It is ranked fifth in this category and is only surpassed by London, Paris, Frankfurt and Barcelona. Many large corporations and banks have their headquarters in Amsterdam, including Royal Bank of Scotland, Akzo Nobel, Heineken International, ING Group, Ahold, TomTom, ''Delta Lloyd Group'' and Philips. KPMG International's global headquarters is located in nearby Amstelveen, where many non-Dutch companies have settled as well due to the fact that surrounding communities allow full land ownership, contrary to Amsterdam's land-lease system.

Though many small offices are still located on the old canals, companies are increasingly relocating outside the city centre. The Zuidas (English: South Axis) has become the new financial and legal hub. The five largest law firms of the Netherlands, a number of Dutch subsidiaries of large consulting firms like Boston Consulting Group and Accenture, and the World Trade Center Amsterdam are also located in Zuidas.

There are three other smaller financial districts in Amsterdam. The first is the area surrounding Amsterdam Sloterdijk railway station, where several newspapers like De Telegraaf have their offices. Also, the municipal public transport company (''Gemeentelijk Vervoersbedrijf'') and the Dutch tax offices (''Belastingdienst'') are located there. The second Financial District is the area surrounding Amsterdam Arena. The third is the area surrounding Amsterdam Amstel railway station. The tallest building in Amsterdam, the Rembrandt Tower, is situated there, as is the headquarters of Philips.

The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), nowadays part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre.

Tourism

Amsterdam is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Europe, receiving more than 4.63 million international visitors annually. The number of visitors has been growing steadily over the past decade. This can be attributed to an increasing number of European visitors. Two thirds of the hotels are located in the city's centre. Hotels with 4 or 5 stars contribute 42% of the total beds available and 41% of the overnight stays in Amsterdam. The room occupation rate was 78% in 2006, up from 70% in 2005. The majority of tourists (74%) originate from Europe. The largest group of non-European visitors come from the United States, accounting for 14% of the total. Certain years have a theme in Amsterdam to attract extra tourists. For example, the year 2006 was designated "Rembrandt 400", to celebrate the 400th birthday of Rembrandt van Rijn. Some hotels offer special arrangements or activities during these years. The average number of guests per year staying at the four campsites around the city range from 12,000 to 65,000.

Red light district

De Wallen, also known as Walletjes or Rosse Buurt, is a designated area for legalized prostitution and is Amsterdam's largest and most well known red-light district. This neighborhood has become a famous tourist attraction. It consists of a network of roads and alleys containing several hundred small, one-room apartments rented by sex workers who offer their services from behind a window or glass door, typically illuminated with red lights.

Coffee shops

Contrary to wide spread rumours, Amsterdam's coffee shops will not be closing their doors to tourists any time soon. A controversial measure to introduce a "wietpas" (Dutch) or "weed-pass" The membership system — pushed primarily by Christian political parties within the Dutch coalition government - is in the works; this pass would restrict coffee shop cannabis sales to residents of the Netherlands with a membership card only. The plan is widely unpopular and proponents face stiff opposition from figures such as Amsterdam's mayor, Eberhard van der Laan, and the Maastricht city council. Others have argued that the plan may indeed violate not only the constitution of the Netherlands but also that of the European Union. It is thus expected that the measure will fail before it is more closely considered.

Retail

Shops in Amsterdam range from large department stores such as De Bijenkorf founded in 1870 and Maison de Bonneterie a Parisian style store founded in 1889, to small specialty shops. Amsterdam's high-end shops are found in the streets ''Pieter Cornelisz Hooftstraat'' and ''Cornelis Schuytstraat'', which are located in the vicinity of the Vondelpark. One of Amsterdam's busiest high streets is the narrow, medieval ''Kalverstraat'' in the heart of the city. Another shopping area is the ''Negen Straatjes'': nine narrow streets within the ''Grachtengordel'', the concentric canal system of Amsterdam. The Negen Straatjes differ from other shopping districts with the presence of a large diversity of privately owned shops.

The city also features a large number of open-air markets such as the ''Albert Cuypmarkt'', ''Westerstraat-markt'', ''Ten Katemarkt'', and ''Dappermarkt''. Some of these markets are held on a daily basis, like the Albert Cuypmarkt and the Dappermarkt. Others, like the Westerstraat-markt, are held on a weekly basis.

Fashion

Fashion brands like G-star, Gsus, BlueBlood, Iris van Herpen, 10 feet and Warmenhoven & Venderbos, and fashion designers like Mart Visser, Viktor & Rolf, Sheila de Vries, Marlies Dekkers and Frans Molenaar are based in Amsterdam. Modelling agencies Elite Models, Touche models and Tony Jones have opened branches in Amsterdam. Supermodels Yfke Sturm, Doutzen Kroes and Kim Noorda started their careers in Amsterdam. Amsterdam has its garment centre in the World Fashion Center. Buildings which formerly housed brothels in the red light district have been converted to ateliers for young fashion designers.

Demographics

In the 16th and 17th century non-Dutch immigrants to Amsterdam were mostly Huguenots, Flemings, Sephardi Jews and Westphalians. Huguenots came after the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, while the Flemish Protestants came during the Eighty Years' War. The Westphalians came to Amsterdam mostly for economic reasons – their influx continued through the 18th and 19th centuries. Before the Second World War, 10% of the city population was Jewish.

The first mass immigration in the 20th century were by people from Indonesia, who came to Amsterdam after the independence of the Dutch East Indies in the 1940s and 1950s. In the 1960s guest workers from Turkey, Morocco, Italy and Spain emigrated to Amsterdam. After the independence of Suriname in 1975, a large wave of Surinamese settled in Amsterdam, mostly in the Bijlmer area. Other immigrants, including refugees asylum seekers and illegal immigrants, came from Europe, America, Asia, and Africa. In the seventies and eighties, many 'old' Amsterdammers moved to 'new' cities like Almere and Purmerend, prompted by the third planological bill of the Dutch government. This bill promoted suburbanisation and arranged for new developments in so called "groeikernen", literally "cores of growth". Young professionals and artists moved into neighbourhoods de Pijp and the Jordaan abandoned by these Amsterdammers. The non-Western immigrants settled mostly in the social housing projects in Amsterdam-West and the Bijlmer. Today, people of non-Western origin make up approximately one-third of the population of Amsterdam, and more than 50% of children.

The largest religious group are Christians, who are divided between Roman Catholics and Protestants. The next largest religion is Islam, most of whose followers are Sunni.

In 1578 the previously Roman Catholic city of Amsterdam joined the revolt against Spanish rule, late in comparison to other major northern Dutch cities. In line with Protestant procedure of that time, all churches were converted to Protestant worship. Calvinism became the dominant religion, and although Catholicism was not forbidden and priests allowed to serve, the Catholic hierarchy was prohibited. This led to the establishment of ''schuilkerken'', covert churches, behind seemingly ordinary canal side house fronts. One example is the current debate centre de Rode Hoed. A large influx of foreigners of many religions came to 17th-century Amsterdam, in particular Sefardic Jews from Spain and Portugal, Huguenots from France, and Protestants from the Southern Netherlands. This led to the establishment of many non-Dutch-speaking religious churches. In 1603, the first notification was made of Jewish religious service. In 1639, the first synagogue was consecrated. The Jews came to call the town Jerusalem of the West, a reference to their sense of belonging there.

As they became established in the city, other Christian denominations used converted Catholic chapels to conduct their own services. The oldest English-language church congregation in the world outside the United Kingdom is found at the Begijnhof. Regular services there are still offered in English under the auspices of the Church of Scotland. The Huguenots accounted for nearly 20% of Amsterdam's inhabitants in 1700. Being Calvinists, they soon integrated into the Dutch Reformed Church, though often retaining their own congregations. Some, commonly referred by the moniker 'Walloon', are recognizable today as they offer occasional services in French.

In the second half of the 17th century, Amsterdam experienced an influx of Ashkenazim, Jews from Central and Eastern Europe, which continued into the 19th century. Jews often fled the pogroms in those areas. The first Ashkenazi who arrived in Amsterdam were refugees from the Chmielnicki Uprising in Poland and the Thirty Years War. They not only founded their own synagogues, but had a strong influence on the 'Amsterdam dialect' adding a large Yiddish local vocabulary.

Despite an absence of an official Jewish ghetto, most Jews preferred to live in the eastern part of the old medieval heart of the city. The main street of this Jewish neighborhood was the ''Jodenbreestraat''. The neighborhood comprised the ''Waterlooplein'' and the Nieuwmarkt. Buildings in this neighborhood fell into disrepair after the Second World War, and a large section of the neighbourhood was demolished during the construction of the subway. This led to riots, and as a result the original plans for large-scale reconstruction were abandoned and the neighborhood was rebuilt with smaller-scale residence buildings on the basis of its original layout.

Catholic Churches in Amsterdam have been constructed since the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy in 1853. One of the principal architects behind the city's Catholic churches, Cuypers, was also responsible for the Amsterdam Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which led to a refusal of Protestant King William III to open 'that monastery'. In 1924, the Roman Catholic Church of the Netherlands hosted the International Eucharistic Congress in Amsterdam, and numerous Catholic prelates visited the city, where festivities were held in churches and stadiums. Catholic processions on the public streets, however, were still forbidden under law at the time. Only in the 20th century was Amsterdam's relation to Catholicism normalized, but despite its far larger population size, the Catholic clergy chose to place its episcopal see of the city in the nearby provincial town of Haarlem.

In recent times, religious demographics in Amsterdam have been changed by large-scale immigration from former colonies. Immigrants from Suriname have introduced Evangelical Protestantism and Lutheranism, from the Hernhutter variety; Hinduism has been introduced mainly from Suriname; and several distinct branches of Islam have been brought from various parts of the world. Islam is now the largest non-Christian religion in Amsterdam. The large community of Ghanaian and Nigerian immigrants have established African churches, often in parking garages in the Bijlmer area, where many have settled. In addition, a broad array of other religious movements have established congregations, including Buddhism, Confucianism and Hinduism.

Although the saying "Leef en laat leven" or "Live and let live" summarises the Dutch and especially the Amsterdam open and tolerant society, the increased influx of many races, religions, and cultures after the Second World War, has on a number of occasions strained social relations. With 176 different nationalities, Amsterdam is home to one of the widest varieties of nationalities of any city in the world. The immigrant share of the population in the city proper now counts about 50%.

Transport

In the city centre, driving a car is discouraged. Parking fees are expensive, and many streets are closed to cars or are one-way. The local government sponsors carsharing and carpooling initiatives such as ''Autodelen'' and ''Meerijden.nu''.

Public transport in Amsterdam mainly consists of (night)bus and tram lines operated by Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf. Regional buses, and some suburban buses, are operated by Connexxion and Arriva. Currently, there are 16 different tramlines. There are currently four metro lines, with a fifth line, the North/South line, under construction. Three free ferries carry pedestrians and cyclists across the IJ to Amsterdam-Noord, and two fare-charging ferries run east and west along the harbour. There are also water taxis, a water bus, a boat sharing operation, electric rental boats (Boaty) and canal cruises, that transport people along Amsterdam's waterways.

The A10 ringroad surrounding the city connects Amsterdam with the Dutch national network of freeways. Interchanges on the A10 allow cars to enter the city by transferring to one of the 18 ''city roads'', numbered S101 through to S118. These city roads are regional roads without grade separation, and sometimes without a central reservation. Most are accessible by cyclists. The S100 ''Centrumring'' is a smaller ringroad circumnavigating the city's centre. Amsterdam was intended in 1932 to be the hub, a kind of Kilometre Zero, of the highway system of the Netherlands, with freeways numbered one through eight planned to originate from the city. The outbreak of the Second World War and shifting priorities led to the current situation, where only roads A1, A2, and A4 originate from Amsterdam according to the original plan. The A3 road to Rotterdam was cancelled in 1970 in order to conserve the Groene Hart. Road A8, leading north to Zaandam and the A10 Ringroad were opened between 1968 and 1974. Besides the A1, A2, A4 and A8, several freeways, such as the A7 and A6, carry traffic mainly bound for Amsterdam.

Amsterdam is served by ten stations of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railways). Five are intercity stops: Sloterdijk, Zuid, Amstel, Bijlmer ArenA and Amsterdam Centraal. The stations for local services are: Lelylaan, RAI, Holendrecht, Muiderpoort and Science Park. Amsterdam Centraal is also an international train station. From the station there are regular services to destinations such as Austria, Belarus, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Russia and Switzerland. Among these trains are international trains of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen and the Thalys(Amsterdam-Brussels-Paris-Cologne), CityNightLine, and InterCityExpress.

Eurolines has coaches from Amsterdam Amstel railway station to destinations all over Europe.

Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is less than 20 minutes by train from Amsterdam Central Station. It is the biggest airport in the Netherlands, the fifth largest in Europe, and the twelfth largest in the world in terms of passengers. It handles about 46 million passengers per year and is the home base of four airlines, KLM, transavia.com, Martinair and Arkefly. Schiphol was, in 2006, the third busiest airport in the world measured by international passengers.

Cycling

Amsterdam is one of the most bicycle-friendly large cities in the world and is a centre of bicycle culture with good facilities for cyclists such as bike paths and bike racks, and several guarded bike storage garages (Fietsenstalling) which can be used for a nominal fee. In 2006, there were about 465,000 bicycles in Amsterdam. Theft is widespread – in 2005, about 54,000 bicycles were stolen in Amsterdam. Bicycles are used by all socio-economic groups because of their convenience, Amsterdam's small size, the 400 km of bike paths, the flat terrain, and the arguable inconvenience of driving an automobile.

Education

Amsterdam has two universities: the University of Amsterdam (Universiteit van Amsterdam), and the VU University Amsterdam (Vrije Universiteit or "VU" – often referred to, in English, as "The Free"). Other institutions for higher education include an art school – Gerrit Rietveld Academie, the Hogeschool van Amsterdam, and the Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor de Kunsten. Amsterdam's International Institute of Social History is one of the world's largest documentary and research institutions concerning social history, and especially the history of the labour movement. Amsterdam's Hortus Botanicus, founded in the early 17th century, is one of the oldest botanical gardens in the world, with many old and rare specimens, among them the coffee plant that served as the parent for the entire coffee culture in Central and South America.

Some of Amsterdam's primary schools base their teachings on particular pedagogic theories like the various Montessori schools. The biggest Montessori High School in Amsterdam is the Montessori Lyceum Amsterdam. Many schools, however, are based on religion. This used to be primarily Roman Catholicism and various Protestant denominations, but with the influx of Muslim immigrants there has been a rise in the number of Islamic schools. Jewish schools can be found in the southern suburbs of Amsterdam.

Amsterdam is noted for having five independent grammar schools (Dutch: gymnasia), the Vossius Gymnasium, Barlaeus Gymnasium, St. Ignatius Gymnasium, Het 4e Gymnasium and the Cygnus Gymnasium where a classical curriculum including Latin and classical Greek is taught. Though believed until recently by many to be an anachronistic and elitist concept that would soon die out, the gymnasia have recently experienced a revival, leading to the formation of a fourth and fifth grammar school in which the three aforementioned schools participate. Most secondary schools in Amsterdam offer a variety of different levels of education in the same school. The city also has various colleges ranging from art and design to politics and economics which are mostly also available for students coming from other countries.

Housing

The housing market is heavily regulated. In Amsterdam, 55% of existing housing and 80% of new housing is owned by Housing Associations, which are Government sponsored entities.

Squat properties are common throughout Amsterdam, due to property law strongly favouring tenants. A number of these squats have become well known, such as OT301, Vrankrijk (closed down by city government), and the Binnenpret, and several are now businesses, such as health clubs and licensed restaurants.

Culture and entertainment

During the later part of the 16th century Amsterdam's Rederijkerskamer (Chamber of Rhetoric) organized contests between different Chambers in the reading of poetry and drama. In 1638, Amsterdam opened its first theatre. Ballet performances were given in this theatre as early as 1642. In the 18th century, French theatre became popular. While Amsterdam was under the influence of German music in the 19th century there were few national opera productions; the Hollandse Opera of Amsterdam was built in 1888 for the specific purpose of promoting Dutch opera. In the 19th century, popular culture was centred around the Nes area in Amsterdam (mainly vaudeville and music-hall). The metronome, one of the most important advances in European classical music, was invented here in 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel. At the end of this century, the Rijksmuseum and Stedelijk Museum were built. In 1888, the Concertgebouworkest was established. With the 20th century came cinema, radio and television. Though most studios are located in Hilversum and Aalsmeer, Amsterdam's influence on programming is very strong. Many people who work in the television industry live in Amsterdam. Also, the headquarters of SBS 6 is located in Amsterdam.

Museums

The most important museums of Amsterdam are located on the Museumplein (''Museum Square''), located at the southwestern side of the Rijksmuseum. It was created in the last quarter of the 19th century on the grounds of the former World's fair. The northeastern part of the square is bordered by the very large Rijksmuseum. In front of the Rijksmuseum on the square itself is a long, rectangular pond. This is transformed into an ice rink in winter. The northwestern part of the square is bordered by the Van Gogh Museum, Stedelijk Museum, House of Bols Cocktail & Genever Experience and Coster Diamonds. The southwestern border of the Museum Square is the Van Baerlestraat, which is a major thoroughfare in this part of Amsterdam. The Concertgebouw is situated across this street from the square. To the southeast of the square are situated a number of large houses, one of which contains the American consulate. A parking garage can be found underneath the square, as well as a supermarket. ''Het Museumplein'' is covered almost entirely with a lawn, except for the northeastern part of the square which is covered with gravel. The current appearance of the square was realized in 1999, when the square was remodeled. The square itself is the most prominent site in Amsterdam for festivals and outdoor concerts, especially in the summer. Plans were made in 2008 to remodel the square again, because many inhabitants of Amsterdam are not happy with its current appearance.

The Rijksmuseum possesses the largest and most important collection of classical Dutch art. It opened in 1885. Its collection consists of nearly one million objects. The artist most associated with Amsterdam is Rembrandt, whose work, and the work of his pupils, is displayed in the Rijksmuseum. Rembrandt's masterpiece De Nachtwacht (''The Night Watch'') is one of top pieces of art of the museum. It also houses paintings from artists like Van der Helst, Vermeer, Frans Hals, Ferdinand Bol, Albert Cuyp, Jacob van Ruisdael and Paulus Potter. Aside from paintings, the collection consists of a large variety of decorative art. This ranges from Delftware to giant dollhouses from the 17th century. The architect of the gothic revival building was P.J.H. Cuypers. At present, the museum is being expanded, renovated, and a new main entrance for the museum created. Only one wing of the Rijksmuseum is currently open to the public, with a selection of master pieces on display. The full museum will re-open in 2012 or 2013.

Van Gogh lived in Amsterdam for a short while and there is a museum dedicated to his work. The museum is housed in one of the few modern buildings in this area of Amsterdam. The building was designed by Gerrit Rietveld. This building is where the permanent collection is displayed. A new building was added to the museum in 1999. This building, known as the performance wing, was designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa. Its purpose is to house temporary exhibitions of the museum. Some of Van Gogh's most famous paintings, like the Aardappeleters (''The Potato Eaters'') and Zonnebloemen (''Sunflowers''), are present in the collection. The Van Gogh museum is the most visited museum in Amsterdam.

Next to the Van Gogh museum stands the Stedelijk Museum. This is Amsterdam's largest museum concerning modern art. The museum opened its doors at around the same time the Museum Square was created. The permanent collection consists of works of art from artists like Piet Mondriaan, Karel Appel, and Kazimir Malevich. This museum is also currently being renovated and expanded. The main entrance will be relocated from the Paulus Potterstraat to the Museum Square itself. It will be open again to public in the end of 2011.

Amsterdam contains many other museums throughout the city. They range from small museums such as the Verzetsmuseum (''Resistance Museum''), the Anne Frank Huis (''Anne Frank House''), and the Rembrandthuis (''Rembrandt House''), to the very large, like the Tropenmuseum (''Museum of the Tropics''), Amsterdam Museum (formerly known as "Amsterdams Historisch Museum", ''Amsterdam Historical Museum''), Hermitage Amsterdam (a dependency of the Hermitage Museum of Saint Petersburg) and the Joods Historisch Museum (''Jewish Historical Museum'').

Performing arts

Pop, rock, and jazz

The Heineken Music Hall is a concert hall located near the Amsterdam ArenA. Its main purpose is to serve as a podium for pop concerts for big audiences. Many famous international artists have performed there. Two other notable venues, Paradiso and the Melkweg are located near the Leidseplein. Both focus on broad programming, ranging from indie rock to hip hop, R&B, and other popular genres. Other more subculturally focused music venues are OCCII, OT301, De Nieuwe Anita, Winston Kingdom and Zaal 100. Jazz has a strong following in Amsterdam, with the Bimhuis being the premier venue.

Electronic Dance Music

The Heineken Music Hall is also host to many Electronic Dance Music festivals, alongside many other venues. Amsterdam is home to Scantraxx, which is one of the largest record labels that produces Hardstyle music, which is very popular in the Netherlands. Armin van Buuren and Tiesto, some of the worlds leading Trance DJ's hail from The Netherlands and perform frequently in Amsterdam. Each year in October, the city hosts the Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) which is one of the leading electronic music conferences and one of the biggest club festivals for electronic music in the world. Another popular dance festival is 5daysoff, which takes place in the venues Paradiso and Melkweg. In summer time there are several big outdoor dance parties in or nearby Amsterdam, such as Awakenings, Dance Valley, Mystery Land, Loveland, A Day at the Park, Welcome to the Future, and Valtifest.

Classical music

Amsterdam has a world-class symphony orchestra, the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra. Their home is the Concertgebouw, which is across the Van Baerlestraat from the Museum Square. It is considered by critics to be a concert hall with some of the best acoustics in the world. The building contains three halls, Grote Zaal, Kleine Zaal, and Spiegelzaal. Eight hundred concerts per year are performed there for approximately 850,000 patrons.

The opera house of Amsterdam is situated adjacent to the city hall. Therefore, the two buildings combined are often called the Stopera. This word is derived from the Dutch words ''stadhuis'' (city hall) and opera. This huge modern complex, opened in 1986, lies in the former Jewish neighbourhood at ''Waterlooplein'' next to the river Amstel. The ''Stopera'' is the homebase of De Nederlandse Opera, Het Nationale Ballet and the Holland Symfonia.

Muziekgebouw aan 't IJ is a concert hall, which is situated in the IJ near the central station. Its concerts perform mostly modern classical music. Located adjacent to it, is the ''Bimhuis'', a concert hall for improvised and Jazz music.

Theatre

The main theatre building of Amsterdam is the Stadsschouwburg Amsterdam at the Leidseplein. It is the home base of the ''Toneelgroep Amsterdam''. The current building dates from 1894. Most plays are performed in the Grote Zaal (Great Hall). The normal programme of events encompasses all sorts of theatrical forms. The Stadsschouwburg is currently being renovated and expanded. The third theater space, to be operated jointly with next door Melkweg, will open in late 2009 or early 2010. Other theatres are: Royal Theatre Carré, Bellevue theatres, the Stopera ''de kleine komedie'' and the re-opened DeLaMar.

Comedy and cabaret

The Netherlands has a tradition of cabaret or ''kleinkunst'', which combines music, storytelling, commentary, theatre and comedy. Cabaret dates back to the 1930s and artists like Wim Kan, Wim Sonneveld and Toon Hermans were pioneers of this form of art in the Netherlands. In Amsterdam is the Kleinkunstacademie (English: Cabaret Academy).

Contemporary popular artists are Youp van 't Hek, Freek de Jonge, Herman Finkers, Hans Teeuwen, Theo Maassen, Herman van Veen, Najib Amhali, Raoul Heertje, Jörgen Raymann, De Vliegende Panters and Comedytrain. The English spoken comedy scene was established with the founding of Boom Chicago in 1993. They have their own theatre at Leidseplein.

Nightlife

Amsterdam is famous for its vibrant and diverse nightlife. The two main nightlife areas are the Leidseplein and the Rembrandtplein.

Amsterdam has many ''cafés'' (bars). They range from large and modern to small and cozy. The typical ''Bruine Kroeg'' (brown ''café'') breathe a more old fashioned atmosphere with dimmed lights, candles, and somewhat older clientele. Most ''cafés'' have terraces in summertime. A common sight on the Leidseplein during summer is a square full of terraces packed with people drinking beer or wine.

Many restaurants can be found in Amsterdam as well. Since Amsterdam is a multicultural city, a lot of different ethnic restaurants can be found. Restaurants range from being rather luxurious and expensive to being ordinary and affordable.

Amsterdam also possesses many discothèques. Most of these 'clubs' are situated near the Leidseplein and Rembrandtplein. The Paradiso, Melkweg and Sugar Factory are cultural centres, which turn into discothèques on some nights. Examples of discothèques near the Rembrandtplein are the Escape and Club Home. Also noteworthy are Panama, Hotel Arena (East), The Sand and The Powerzone.

The Reguliersdwarsstraat is the main street for the LGBT community and nightlife.

Movie theaters

Hollywood films are primarily featured at cinemas owned by Pathe. Tuschinski is a heritage art deco building with a beautiful lobby and six screens. Theater One is an architectural treasure with comfortable seats, two balconies and recently restored ceilings. Pathe De Munt is modern and is located at the Muntplein. Pathe Arena is located a metro ride from the centre and includes an IMAX auditorium. Pathe City is scheduled to reopen in 2010. Art films can be found at Tuschinski, and the independent The Movies, Cinecenter, Kriterion, Ketelhuis, Uitkijk, and the Filmmuseum.

Festivals

In 2008, there were 140 festivals and events in Amsterdam. Famous festivals and events in Amsterdam include: Koninginnedag (Queen's Day); the Holland Festival for the performing arts; the yearly Prinsengrachtconcert (classical concerto on the Prinsen canal) in August; the 'Stille Omgang' (a silent Roman Catholic evening procession held every March); Amsterdam Gay Pride; The Cannabis Cup; and the Uitmarkt. On Koninginnedag—held each year on 30 April—hundreds of thousands of people travel to Amsterdam to celebrate with the city's residents. The entire city becomes overcrowded with people buying products from the ''freemarket,'' or visiting one of the many music concerts.

The yearly Holland Festival attracts international artists and visitors from all over Europe. Amsterdam Gay Pride is a yearly local LGBT parade of boats in Amsterdam's canals, held on the first Saturday in August. The Gay Pride event is a frequent source of both criticism and praise. The annual Uitmarkt is a three-day cultural event at the start of the cultural season in late August. It offers previews of many different artists, such as musicians and poets, who perform on podia.

Sports

Amsterdam is home of the ''Eredivisie'' football club Ajax Amsterdam. The stadium Amsterdam ArenA is the home of Ajax. It is located in the south-east of the city next to the new Amsterdam Bijlmer ArenA railway station. Before it moved to its current location in 1996, Ajax played their regular matches in De Meer Stadion. In 1928, Amsterdam hosted the Summer Olympics. The Olympic Stadium built for the occasion has been completely restored and is now used for cultural and sporting events, such as the Amsterdam Marathon. The city itself played host to the road cycling events for those games. Eight years earlier, Amsterdam assisted in hosting some of the sailing events for the Summer Olympics held in neighboring Antwerp, Belgium by hosting events at Buiten Y.

The ice hockey team Amstel Tijgers play in the Jaap Eden ice rink. The team competes in the Dutch ice hockey premier league. Speed skating championships have been held on the lane of this ice rink.

Amsterdam holds two American Football franchises, the Amsterdam Crusaders, playing at Amsterdam Sloten, and the Amsterdam Panthers. The Amsterdam Pirates baseball team competes in the Dutch Major League. There are three field hockey teams, Amsterdam, Pinoké and Hurley, who play their matches around the Wagener Stadium in the nearby city of Amstelveen. The basketball team MyGuide Amsterdam competes in the Dutch premier division and play their games in the Sporthallen Zuid, near the Olympic Stadium.

Since 1999 the city of Amsterdam honours the best sportsmen and women at the Amsterdam Sports Awards. Boxer Raymond Joval and field hockey midfielder Carole Thate were the first to receive the awards in 1999.

Kick boxing, Muay Thai and other martial arts are very popular in the country and especially in the city of Amsterdam.

International relations

Twin towns – Sister cities

Amsterdam is twinned with the following cities:

>

City	Municipality / District / Canton / Province / State / Region	Country	Since
! !	! !
! !	! !

See also

Amsterdammertje

Government of Amsterdam

References

;Attribution

External links

Tourist information about Amsterdam – Website of the Netherlands Board of Tourism and Conventions

Amsterdam.nl – Official government site

I amsterdam – Portal for international visitors

Amsterdam City Archives

Wikimapia Entry

Category:1928 Summer Olympic venues 1 Category:Capitals in Europe Category:Cities in the Netherlands Category:European Capitals of Culture Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games Category:Olympic cycling venues Category:Populated places established in the 13th century Category:Populated places in North Holland Category:Port cities and towns in the Netherlands Category:Port cities and towns of the North Sea Category:IOC Session Host Cities

ace:Amsterdam af:Amsterdam am:አምስተርዳም ang:Amsterdam ar:أمستردام an:Amsterdam arc:ܐܡܣܛܪܕܐܡ roa-rup:Amsterdam frp:Amsterdam ast:Amsterdam az:Amsterdam bn:আমস্টারডাম zh-min-nan:Amsterdam ba:Амстердам be:Горад Амстэрдам be-x-old:Амстэрдам bar:Amsterdam bo:ཨེམ་སི་ཊར་ཌམ། bs:Amsterdam br:Amsterdam bg:Амстердам ca:Amsterdam cv:Амстердам cs:Amsterdam cy:Amsterdam da:Amsterdam de:Amsterdam et:Amsterdam el:Άμστερνταμ es:Ámsterdam eo:Amsterdamo ext:Ámsterdam eu:Amsterdam fa:آمستردام hif:Amsterdam fo:Amsterdam fr:Amsterdam fy:Amsterdam fur:Amsterdam ga:Amstardam gv:Amsterdam gd:Amsterdam gl:Ámsterdam - Amsterdam ko:암스테르담 hy:Ամստերդամ hi:ऐम्स्टर्डैम hsb:Amsterdam hr:Amsterdam io:Amsterdam ilo:Amsterdam, Nederlandia id:Amsterdam ia:Amsterdam ie:Amsterdam os:Амстердам is:Amsterdam it:Amsterdam he:אמסטרדם jv:Amsterdam kn:ಆಂಸ್ಟರ್ಡ್ಯಾಮ್ pam:Amsterdam krc:Амстердам ka:ამსტერდამი csb:Amsterdam kk:Амстердам kw:Amsterdam sw:Amsterdam kv:Амстердам ht:Amstèdam ku:Amsterdam mrj:Амстердам la:Amstelodamum lv:Amsterdama lb:Amsterdam lt:Amsterdamas lij:Amsterdam li:Amsterdam lmo:Amsterdam hu:Amszterdam mk:Амстердам ml:ആംസ്റ്റർഡാം mi:Amsterdam mr:अ‍ॅम्स्टरडॅम arz:امستردام ms:Amsterdam mn:Амстердам my:အမ်စတာဒမ်မြို့ nah:Amsterdam na:Amsterdam nl:Amsterdam nds-nl:Amsterdam ne:आम्स्टर्डम new:एम्स्टर्ड्याम ja:アムステルダム nap:Amsterdam frr:Amsterdam no:Amsterdam nn:Amsterdam nov:Amsterdam oc:Amsterdam pnb:ایمسٹرڈیم pap:Amsterdam koi:Амстердам pcd:Amsterdam pms:Àmsterdam nds:Amsterdam pl:Amsterdam pt:Amsterdão crh:Amsterdam ro:Amsterdam rm:Amsterdam qu:Amsterdam rue:Амстердам ru:Амстердам sah:Амстердам se:Amsterdam sco:Amsterdam stq:Amsterdam st:Amsterdam sq:Amsterdami scn:Amsterdam simple:Amsterdam sk:Amsterdam sl:Amsterdam so:Amistardam ckb:ئەمستردام srn:Damsko sr:Амстердам sh:Amsterdam su:Amsterdam fi:Amsterdam sv:Amsterdam tl:Amsterdam ta:ஆம்ஸ்டர்டம் tt:Амстердам th:อัมสเตอร์ดัม tg:Амстердам tr:Amsterdam tk:Amsterdam udm:Амстердам uk:Амстердам ur:ایمسٹرڈیم ug:ئامستېردام vec:Amsterdam vi:Amsterdam vo:Amsterdam zh-classical:阿姆斯特丹 war:Amsterdam wo:Amsterdam yi:אמסטערדאם yo:Amsterdam zh-yue:阿姆斯特丹 diq:Amsterdam zea:Amsterdam bat-smg:Amsterdams zh:阿姆斯特丹

name	Jean Michel Jarre
background	non_vocal_instrumentalist
birth date	August 24, 1948
origin	Lyon, France
instrument	Synthesizer, piano, organ, laser harp, accordion, guitar, bass guitar
genre	Electronic music, instrumental music, New Age, ambient, electronic rock
occupation	Composer, musician, artist, producer
years active	1969–present
label	Disques Dreyfus, Polydor/PolyGram, Epic/SME, Warner Bros., EMI
website	}}

Jean-Michel André Jarre (born 24 August 1948) is a French composer, performer and music producer. He is a pioneer in the electronic, synthpop, ambient and New Age genres, and known as an organiser of outdoor spectacles of his music featuring lights, laser displays, and fireworks.

Jarre was raised in Lyon by his mother and grandparents, and trained on the piano. From an early age he was introduced to a variety of art forms, including those of street performers, jazz musicians, and the artist Pierre Soulages. He played guitar in a band, but his musical style was perhaps most heavily influenced by Pierre Schaeffer, a pioneer of musique concrète at the Groupe de Recherches Musicales.

His first mainstream success was the 1976 album ''Oxygène''. Recorded in a makeshift studio at his home, the album sold an estimated 12 million copies. ''Oxygène'' was followed in 1978 by ''Équinoxe'', and in 1979 Jarre performed to a record-breaking audience of more than a million people at the Place de la Concorde, a record he has since broken three times. More albums were to follow, but his 1979 concert served as a blueprint for his future performances around the world. Several of his albums have been released to coincide with large-scale outdoor events, and he is now perhaps as well known as a performer as a musician.

Jarre has sold an estimated 80 million albums and singles. He was the first Western musician to be allowed to perform in the People's Republic of China, and holds the world record for the largest-ever audience at an outdoor event.

Biography

Early life, influences, and education

Jean Michel Jarre was born on 24 August 1948 in Lyon, the son of composer Maurice Jarre and French Resistance member and concentration camp survivor France Pejot. The two separated when Jarre was five years old; his father moved to the United States, while his mother remained in the suburbs of Paris to look after their son. Jarre did not meet his father again until he was eighteen. Jarre's Grandfather, André Jarre, was an oboe player, engineer and inventor, who also designed an early audio mixer used at Radio Lyon. He also gave Jean Michel his first record player. For the first eight years of his life, Jarre spent six months of each year at his grandparent's flat along the Cours de Verdun, in the Perrache district of Lyon. Jarre has cited the street performers he watched from his window there as an influence on his art (traces of this can be found on his album ''Équinoxe'', particularly "Équinoxe Part 8").

Jarre struggled with his classical piano studies, although he later changed teacher and began work on his scales. A more general interest in musical instruments was sparked by the discovery at the Saint-Ouen flea market of a Boris Vian Trumpet Violin. He often accompanied his mother to Le Chat Qui Pêche (The Fishing Cat), a friend's Paris jazz club, where saxophonists Archie Shepp and John Coltrane, and trumpet players Don Cherry and Chet Baker were regular performers. Jarre cites these early experiences of Jazz as introducing him to the idea that music may be "descriptive, without lyrics". He was also influenced by the work of French artist Pierre Soulages, whose exhibition at the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris he attended. Soulages' paintings used multiple textured layers, and Jarre realised that "for the first time in music, you could act as a painter with frequencies and sounds." He was also influenced by more traditional music; in a 2004 interview for ''The Guardian'', he spoke of the effect that a performance of Stravinsky's ''The Rite of Spring'' had upon him:

As a young man he funded his lifestyle by painting, exhibiting some of his works at the Lyon Gallery – ''L'Oeil Ecoute''. He also played in a band called Mystère IV (Mystery 4). While he studied at the Lycée Michelet his mother arranged for him to take lessons in harmony, counterpoint and fugue with Jeannine Rueff of the Conservatoire de Paris. In 1967 he played guitar in a band called ''The Dustbins''. Jarre experimented by mixing several instruments, including the electric guitar and the flute, with tape effects and other sounds. The band appears in the film ''Des garçons et des filles''.

In 1968 he began to experiment with tape loops, radios and other electronic devices. Joining the Groupe de Recherches Musicales (GRM) in 1969, then under the direction of Pierre Schaeffer, "father" of musique concrète, proved hugely influential. Schaeffer's view was that "music isn't made of notes, it's made of sounds". Jarre was introduced to the Moog modular synthesizer, and he spent time working at the studio of influential German composer Karlheinz Stockhausen in Cologne.

In the kitchen of his flat on ''Rue de la Trémoille'', near the Champs-Élysées in Paris, he set up a small recording studio, which included EMS VCS 3 and EMS Synthi AKS synthesisers, and two linked Revox tape machines.

For a 1969 exposition at the ''Maison de la Culture (Cultural House)'' in Reims Jarre wrote the five-minute song "Happiness Is a Sad Song", but his first commercial release came in 1969 with ''La Cage/Erosmachine'', a mixture of harmony, tape effects and synthesisers.

1970s

In 1971 he was commissioned by choreographer Norbert Schmucki to perform a ballet at the Palais Garnier, named ''AOR'' (in Hebrew, "light")). Jarre also composed music for ballet, theatre, advertisements and television programs, as well as music and lyrics for artists like Patrick Juvet and Christophe. He composed the soundtrack for ''Les Granges Brûlées'' and in 1972 wrote music for the International Festival of Magic. That year he released his first solo album, ''Deserted Palace'', and from 1973–74 wrote music for Françoise Hardy and Gérard Lenorman. He also directed Christophe's Olympia show.

Jarre first achieved international stardom with his 1976 solo album, ''Oxygène''. It comprises six numbered synthesiser tracks that make strong use of melody, rather than rhythm or dissonance. Recorded at his home studio on a Scully eight-track recorder, on a small budget, ''Oxygène'' was composed with such instruments as the Eminent 310 (with an Electro-Harmonix ''Small Stone'' phaser on its string pads), the Korg Minipops drum machine, and liberal use of echo on the various sound effects generated by the VCS3 synthesiser.

''Oxygène'' initially proved difficult to sell. Jarre was turned down by several record companies until a fellow student of Schaeffer, Hélène Dreyfus (at the time her husband Francis's artistic director), persuaded her husband to publish the album on his label, Disques Motors. The first pressing of 50,000 copies was promoted through hi-fi shops, clubs and discos, and by April 1977 the album had sold 70,000 copies in France. When interviewed in ''Billboard'' magazine Dreyfus's director Stanislas Witold said "In a sense we're putting most of our bets on Jean Michel Jarre. He is quite exceptional and we're sure that by 1980 he will be recognised worldwide." ''Oxygène'' has since sold an estimated 12 million copies, and is the best-selling French record of all time. It reached number 2 in the UK, number 65 in Canada, and broke the top 100 in the US. The album contains his most recognisable single, "Oxygène IV",'which reached number 4 in the UK single charts.

Jarre's follow-up album, ''Équinoxe'', was released in 1978. It was composed with sequencers, particularly on the bass, and features a more baroque and classical style than ''Oxygène'', with more emphasis on melodic development. Although not as commercially successful as ''Oxygène'' its release was followed in 1979 by a large open-air concert at the Place de la Concorde, on Bastille Day. The free outdoor event set a new world record for the largest number of spectators ever at an open-air concert, and drew more than 1 million spectators. It was also watched by a television audience of over 100 million. The event's success was not fully anticipated; the crowds were so large that Jarre's wife, Charlotte Rampling, found it difficult to access the venue. Although it was not the first time that Jarre had performed in concert (he had already played at the Paris Opera Ballet), the 40 minute-long event, which used projections of light, images and fireworks, served as a blueprint for Jarre's future concerts. The event helped to boost his popularity, as between 14 July and 31 August 1979 he sold a further 800,000 records. It also served as Jarre's introduction to Francis Rimbert – brought together by Michel Geiss, Jarre used Rimbert's sythesizer setup for the performance. Today Rimbert works for Jarre on a full-time basis.

1980s

By the time that ''Magnetic Fields'' (French version: ''Les Chants Magnétiques'') was released on 20 May 1981, ''Oxygène'' and ''Équinoxe'' had achieved global sales of about 6 million units; in its first two months ''Magnetic Fields'' sold a reported 200,000 units in France alone. The sounds used are primarily those of the Fairlight CMI, which gave Jarre the chance to continue his earlier sonic experimentation, using digital technology to make the collection and processing of sounds much easier. Jarre and Peter Gabriel were among the first artists to take delivery of the Fairlight platform and make heavy use of it.

The album's release coincided with Jarre's first foreign tour. In 1981 the British Embassy in Beijing gave Radio Beijing copies of ''Oxygène'' and ''Équinoxe'', which became the first pieces of foreign music to be played on Chinese national radio in decades. Jarre was then invited by the republic to perform The Concerts in China, the first western musician to perform a concert there. The performances were scheduled to run from 18 October to 5 November 1981. The first, in Beijing, was at first attended mostly by officials. Before the concert began technicians realised that not enough power was available to supply the stage and auditorium, and so Chinese officials solved the problem by cutting power to the surrounding districts, for the duration of the performance.

The stadium was almost full when the concert started, but nearly half the audience left before the end, as Beijing's buses stopped running at about 10 o'clock. To boost the audience attendance for the second night, Jarre and his production team purchased some of the concert tickets and gave them to children on the streets (Jarre originally intended for the concerts to be free, but the Chinese authorities charged between £0.20 and £0.50 per ticket). The concert was notable for the lack of audience involvement during the performance; the Chinese were apparently nonplussed by both the music and the light show, and applause was muted. The second venue in Shanghai was a different matter – Jarre actively encouraged audience participation by stepping into the crowd, which became much more exuberant than that in Beijing. The concerts were released as a double-disc LP in 1982, and featured the Laser harp, one of Jarre's signature electronic instruments.

On 5 July 1983 Jarre auctioned the only existing vinyl print of his newest album, ''Music For Supermarkets'' (French version: ''Musique pour Supermarché''), created for a planned performance at the "Supermarché" art exhibition. Jarre allowed Radio Luxembourg to broadcast the album, uninterrupted, in its entirety, before selling it at auction, at the Hôtel Drouot in Paris. The sale raised about 70,000 francs, and Jarre promised to burn the original tapes in the presence of a bailiff.

Despite their destruction, much of the music on these tapes was reworked into his 1984 album ''Zoolook''. It combines analogue synthesis with ethnic and vocal music, and makes heavy use of the sampling capabilities of the Fairlight CMI. Zoolook also features samples of words and speech in different languages from around the globe, creating a diverse range of sounds and effects. Laurie Anderson provided the vocals for the track "Diva". With its rock music underpinnings, ''Zoolook'' resides amongst a handful of pop and rock albums that make intensive and sometimes exhaustive use of the Fairlight synthesiser. A long list of musicians, including Adrian Belew and Marcus Miller, also made significant contributions. The album was somewhat less successful than Jarre's previous works, reaching only no.47 in the UK album charts and no.86 in Canada.

}}

In 1985 Jarre was invited by the musical director of the Houston Grand Opera in Texas to perform a concert to celebrate the city and state's 150th anniversary. Although he was busy with other projects and was initially unimpressed by the proposal, he later visited the city. He was immediately impressed by the visual grandeur of the city's skyline, and agreed to perform. That year also marked the 25th anniversary of the foundation of the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, and Jarre was contacted by NASA to integrate the anniversary into the concert.

The creation of ''Rendez-Vous'' took place over a period of two months, and as with ''Zoolook'', contains elements of his 1983 album ''Musique pour Supermarché''. The three movements of the score represent Houston's development from a rural economy, to its role as a leader in space technology. Baroque in style, the album uses a mixture of French horns, trombones and violins, and features heavy use of the Elka Synthex, notably so on "Third Rendez-Vous", a track Jarre often performs using a laser harp. Jarre worked with several Houston-based astronauts including Bruce McCandless II, and former Jazz musician Ronald McNair, who was to have played the saxophone on "Rendez-Vous VI", recorded in the weightless environment of space. McNair was to have performed at the concert over a live link, but was killed in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on 28 January 1986. Immediately following the accident consideration was given to the cancellation of the concert, but Jarre was contacted by McCandless and urged to proceed, and to mark the event as a tribute to the crew of the Shuttle mission. Following the Challenger disaster, the piece was recorded by Kirk Whalum and retitled "Ron's Piece".

About 2,000 projectors displaying images onto buildings and giant screens up to high transformed the city's skyscrapers into spectacular backdrops, accompanied by an elaborate display of fireworks and lasers. Rendez-vous Houston entered the ''Guinness Book of Records'' for its audience of over 1.5 million people, beating his earlier record in 1979. The concert featured large projections of photographic images and laser patterns onto the buildings of downtown Houston. The display was so impressive that passing vehicles blocked a nearby freeway, closing it for the duration of the concert. "Ron's Piece" was performed by Kirk Whalum.

Several months later about one million people watched him perform for a celebration of Pope John Paul II's visit to Jarre's home city of Lyon. The pope, viewing from Lyon Cathedral, began the concert with a good-night blessing (a recording of which appears on the album ''Cities In Concert — Houston/Lyon'').

In 1988 Jarre released his ninth studio album, ''Revolutions''. The album spans several genres, including symphonic industrial, Arabian inspired, light guitar pop and ethnic electro jazz. A two hour concert, titled Destination Docklands, was planned for 24 September 1988 at the Royal Victoria Dock in east London. The location, close to the heart of London, was chosen in part for its desolate environment, but also because Jarre thought the architecture and environment would be ideally suited to his music. Plans to stage the concert began early in 1988, with Jarre meeting local officials and members of the community. The floating stage on which Jarre and his musicians would perform was built on top of four large barges. Large purpose-built display screens were constructed from scaffolding, and one of the buildings to be used in the backdrop was painted white. Local children practised the choral elements of the performance. During the transportation of several large mirror balls commissioned for the event, one came loose and fell onto the roadside. On the same night a satellite (containing radioactive material) was due to re-enter the Earth's atmosphere. The sighting of the mirror ball led to a degree of confusion as some people mistook it for the falling satellite. World War II searchlights were to illuminate the sky and surrounding architecture, along with thousands of coloured fireworks.

Newham Borough Council, which ran the docks, expressed their fears about the safety of the event, and delayed their decision on whether to allow the concert to proceed until 12 September before eventually refusing the licence application. The local fire service were also concerned that in the event of a fire, they would be unable to gain access. Work continued on the site, and Jarre's team looked at other locations around the UK, but following improvements to both on and off-site safety Jarre eventually won conditional approval on 28 September to stage two separate performances from 8–9 October.

Along with thousands in the surrounding streets and parks, 200,000 people watched Jarre perform with guests such as guitarist Hank Marvin. The performances were not without issues; inclement weather had threatened to break the stage from its moorings, and although the original plan was to have Jarre float across the Royal Victoria Dock on the first evening, winds of over 30 knots meant that it was deemed unsafe – the winds were so strong that television cameras were blown over. The audience, which included Diana, Princess of Wales, was on the second evening soaked by rain and wind.

1990s

In 1990 Jarre released ''Waiting for Cousteau'' (French version: ''En Attendant Cousteau''), which was inspired by the French oceanographer Jacques-Yves Cousteau. On Bastille Day 1990 he performed a concert at La Défense in Paris, attended by a record-breaking audience of about two million people – once more, beating his earlier world records. He later promoted a concert near the Pyramids of Teotihuacan in Mexico, to be held during the solar eclipse of 11 July 1991, but the project stalled. Several weeks before the scheduled performance, important equipment had not arrived and the sinking in the Atlantic Ocean of a cargo ship containing the purpose-built pyramidal stage and other technical equipment made the staging of the concert impossible. Jarre's disappointment was such that he "could not cope with Mexican food for two years".

In 1991 he released the Best Of compilation ''Images – The Best of Jean Michel Jarre'', which included some of his best work and additionally three new tracks.

In 1993 Jarre released his first work to be largely influenced by the techno-music scene that had been developing since about 1989. Entitled ''Chronologie'', the album was, from a technical standpoint, a revision to a concept employed by Jarre in his ''Oxygène''/''Équinoxe'' period, where a grandiose overture provides the emotional feel and sonic timbre for the rest of the following, more rhythmic pieces.

Along with Jarre's traditional collection of instruments, such as the ARP 2600 and Mini Moog, Jarre used newer state-of-the-art equipment such as the Roland JD-800 and the Kurzweil K2000. This album features sampled clocks and contemporary rhythms, driving the tempo. Its release was followed by Jarre's first large scale tour.

A series of 16 performances across Europe, ''Europe In Concert'' occurred on a smaller scale than his previous concerts. ''Chronologie'' was central to the tour's repertoire. The set featured a miniature skyline, laser imaging, and fireworks. Locations included Lausanne, Mont St Michel, London, Manchester, Barcelona, Sevilla and the Versailles Palace near Paris. Jarre performed in Hong Kong on 11 March 1994, to mark the opening of the city's new stadium, as a continuation of the tour. The sold-out event included a range of entertainers, including bikini-clad Brazilians.

Jarre performed at the ''Concert for Tolerance'' on Bastille Day in 1995 (he had in 1993 accepted the offer to become a Goodwill Ambassador of Tolerance and Youth for UNESCO). In front of the Eiffel Tower he celebrated the 50th anniversary of the United Nations, performing many of his most well-known hits. The tower was specially lit for the occasion, prompting the installation of a more permanent display. The following December he created a website called "A Space for Tolerance". The site featured music from ''En Attendant Cousteau'', played while the user browsed a variety of "visual worlds". Also in 1995, Jarre released the remix album ''Jarremix''.

After years of experimenting with new technology, with ''Oxygène 7–13'' he returned to the analogue synthesisers of the 1970s. The album was released in 1997, more than 20 years after ''Oxygène'', and was dedicated to his mentor at the GRM, Pierre Schaeffer, who had died in 1995. Eschewing the digital techniques developed in the 1980s, in an interview for ''The Daily Telegraph'' he said:

On 6 September that year the Moscow State University became the backdrop for a spectacular display of image projections, skytrackers and fireworks. The event, celebrating the 850th anniversary of Moscow, was viewed by an audience of about 3.5 million, his fourth record for the largest ever outdoor concert audience. The funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales, had taken place on the same day, and the composer dedicated "Souvenir of China" to her memory, followed by a well-observed minute's silence.

In July 1998 he became the first artist spokesman for the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry. He rallied hundreds of musicians in a petition to the European Parliament over the proposed European Union Copyright Directive. He was succeeded in the post by The Corrs, in July 2000. On 31 December 1999 Jarre held a three-hour music and light show in the Egyptian desert near Giza. The Twelve Dreams of the Sun celebrated the new millennium and offered a preview of his next album, ''Métamorphoses''. Beginning on New Year's Eve, the show featured performances from more than 1,000 local artists and musicians, and was based on ancient Egyptian mythology about the journey of the sun and its effect upon humanity. Addressing the audience, Jarre said "I hope the new millennium will witness international understanding". Jarre's anthemic work melded electronic music with Western jazz and Arabic rhythms and melodies, and was accompanied by lasers projected onto the backdrop of the pyramids and the Sahara Desert.

2000s

Jarre released ''Métamorphoses'', his first vocal album, in 2000. The entire album was mixed on an early version of Pro Tools, a digital audio workstation designed to record, edit and play back digital audio. The compositions and their arrangement on this techno-based album co-produced with Joachim Garraud marked a departure from Jarre's previous style. Sound effects used include radio interference from mobile phones (used on the track "Tout est Bleu"), and Macintalk, a Macintosh program used to generate lyrics on the track "Love, Love, Love". Laurie Anderson makes her second guest appearance in the Jarre discography (her first was on ''Zoolook'' on the track "Diva"). Other contributors include Natacha Atlas and Sharon Corr.

On 1 January 2001 Jarre and Tetsuya "TK" Komuro performed exclusive new material in Okinawa. ''Rendez-vous in Space'' was a tribute to the science-fiction author Arthur C. Clarke, a close friend of Jarre’s. Jarre used recordings of Clarke (filmed before the concert) to introduce each piece of music. The opening sequence of the concert was based on the theme from the film 2001: A Space Odyssey. Later that year, Jarre gave a charity concert for the Elpida Foundation at the Acropolis in Athens, Greece.

In 2001 he composed ''Interior Music'', a demonstration piece for Bang and Olufsen. The album has not had a commercial release. On 6 September 2002 Jarre performed a concert at a windfarm near Gammel Vrå Enge, outside Aalborg in Denmark. A rain-soaked audience of between 35–40,000 watched him perform in front of a windfarm illuminated by lights and fireworks. The event was beset with problems, caused mainly by the 22mm of rain that fell on the venue – the organisers had anticipated only 4mm. Some fans reported a wait of six hours to leave the site, and one fan reported that a bus had blocked traffic when it slid into a ditch, and also that many ticket-holders were not allowed into the arena because thousands of gatecrashers had broken through a fence. The concert was however generally viewed as a success.

The event marked a change in direction in Jarre's live concerts; from Rendez-vous Houston onwards he had been accompanied by a full complement of live musicians, however the concert in Aalborg demonstrated a marked reduction in the number of musicians on stage; Jarre was accompanied only by the Klarup Girls Choir, Francis Rimbert, Safri Duo, and the Aalborg Symphonic Orchestra. 2002 also saw the release of ''Sessions 2000'', a set of more experimental synth-jazz pieces that were stylistically distinct from anything Jarre had previously released. The album was reviewed positively by ''Billboard Magazine'', which wrote "He's [Jarre] created a deeply nuanced soundscape that invites repeated listening."

In 2003, Jarre released ''Geometry of Love''. The album was commissioned by Jean Roch, as a soundtrack for his 'V.I.P. Room' nightclub in France, and contains a mix of 'electro-chill' music, with touches of his more traditional style. The following year, on 10 October, he returned to China for two performances, one in the Forbidden City at the Meridian Gate, followed immediately by a smaller concert in Tiananmen Square. Both were designed to open China’s "Year of France" cultural exchange. The concert was transmitted live across the country, and was also watched on large television screens at shopping centres in Beijing. Jarre opened the concert with a collaboration with Chen Lin, who played an Erhu. Accompanying his traditional musical repertoire, 600 projectors shone coloured light and images across various screens and objects. More than 15,000 spectators watched the concert at the Meridian Gate. A combined DVD/CD of these concerts, ''Jarre in China'' was released in 2004.

In September 2004, Jarre released ''AERO'', both a DVD and a CD in one package. Purportedly the world's first album released for 5.1 systems, with it being fully "constructed" in 5.1 surround sound, it contains re-recorded versions of some of his most famous tracks, including tracks from ''Oxygène'' and ''Équinoxe''. Accompanying the audio, the DVD features a visual image of Anne Parillaud's eyes, recorded in real time as she listened to the album. Jarre used the minimalist imagery to reinforce the audio content of the DVD. The CD was mixed in super-stereo.

In his role of UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador, Jarre performed a concert named Water for Life in Morocco, on 16 December 2006, to celebrate the year of desertification in the world. The performance was in front of the Erg Chebbi Dunes of Merzouga, in the Sahara. A free event, it was attended by about 25,000 people. Images of water and the environment were projected onto nine vertical screens, held in place by sand which was watered to keep it hard. Several permanent drinking fountains were built on the site, along with a permanent electricity installation. Jarre was accompanied by over 60 Moroccan artists.

Jarre released ''Téo & Téa'' on 26 March 2007. He described the two computer-generated characters in the video clip of the title track as being "like twins", one female, one male. The album is supposed to describe the different stages of a loving relationship, and explores the idea that the length of such relationships is unpredictable. Its release demonstrated a move away from virtual instruments and computers that Jarre had been using up to that point; he instead chose to use a simplified range of devices, including several new prototype instruments. The album's cover was inspired by the David Lynch film ''Wild at Heart''.

In August 2007 Jarre signed for EMI France. He released an anniversary package containing a special live recording of his classic work, ''Oxygène'', in 3D DVD, live CD and normal 2D DVD formats in November 2007, named ''Oxygène: New Master Recording''. A first for Jarre, the album was recorded live, without tape or hard disk playback, with help from Francis Rimbert, Claude Samard, and Dominique Perrier. The album also contains three extra tracks not found on either the original or remake, which form links between the main movements. Jarre plans to integrate the original analog synthesizers from ''Oxygène'' into his next album, and is building a new private recording studio on the outskirts of Paris. In the same year Disques Dreyfus released ''The Complete Oxygène'', containing the original versions of ''Oxygène'' and ''Oxygène 7–13'', and remixes of tracks from ''Oxygène 7–13''.

Jarre performed 10 concerts (''Oxygène Live'') in Paris, from 12–26 December 2007, held in the Théâtre Marigny, a small 1000-seat theatre in the Champs-Élysées. Later in 2008 Jarre performed several concerts to celebrate the 30th anniversary of ''Oxygène'', in theatres in Europe. Following one such performance at the Royal Albert Hall Jarre met Brian May, who proposed he create a concert in Tenerife for the International Year of Astronomy, but a lack of sponsorship meant that the concert did not take place.

In 2009 he was selected as the artistic director of the World Sky Race, and also accepted a role as Goodwill Ambassador for the International Year of Astronomy. In 2009 he started an indoor tour in arenas throughout Europe.

2010s

On 1 March 2010, Jean Michel Jarre started the second leg of his 2009–2010 indoors tour, and on 10 June he was presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award by Mojo magazine.

On 30 May 2011, he released the double CD set ''Essentials & Rarities''. The ''Essentials'' disc is a compilation of his most famous work. The ''Rarities'' disc includes tracks made before ''Oxygène''.

On 1 July 2011, Jarre performed a large scale concert in Monaco to celebrate the marriage of Prince Albert and his bride Charlene.

Personal life

Jarre has been married three times. He was married to Flore Guillard from 20 January 1975 until 1977, their daughter Émilie Charlotte was born in 1975 (or 1976) and became a fashion model. He met his second wife Charlotte Rampling at a dinner party in St Tropez in 1976. Both were in failing marriages, but they each obtained a divorce (Rampling was married to New Zealander Bryan Southcombe). The two married, Jarre gaining custody of his daughter Émilie Charlotte, and Rampling her son Barnaby. Together they have a son, David. In 1995 photographs in ''Hello!'' showed Jarre apparently romantically involved with 31-year old secretary Odile Froument, and in 1996 Jarre and Rampling separated. They divorced in 2002. He had a brief relationship with Isabelle Adjani, but married French actress Anne Parillaud in May 2005. In November 2010 the couple announced their divorce.

Jarre has a half-sister Stéphanie Jarre, from Maurice Jarre's other marriages. His half-brother, Kevin Jarre, died in 2011. Although Maurice and Jean-Michel remained estranged, following Maurice's death in 2009 Jarre paid tribute to his legacy. Jarre said about his father:

Awards and recognition

1976 – Grand Prix du Disque by L'Académie Charles Cros, for ''Oxygène'' 1976 – "Personality of The Year" by ''People'' magazine (U.S.) 1978 – Midem award 1979 – ''Guinness Book of Records'' entry for the biggest concert ever (La Concorde)

1981 – Honorary member of the Beijing Conservatory of Music.

1984 – Grand Prix du Disque by L'Académie Charles Cros, for ''Zoolook''. 1985 – Instrumental album of the year, at the Victoires de la Musique in France, for ''Zoolook'' 1986 – Instrumental album of the year, at the Victoires de la Musique, for ''Rendez-vous'' 1986 – Musical spectacle of the year, at the Victoires de la Musique, for the Rendez-Vous Houston concert 1987 – New ''Guinness Book of Records'' entry for the biggest concert ever (Rendez-Vous Houston) 1987 – "European musician Person of the Year" by ''People'' magazine

1990 – New ''Guinness Book of Records'' entry for the biggest concert ever (Paris La Defense: A City in Concert)

1993 – UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador 1994 – Victoire de la Musique for Chronologie. 1995 – Awarded Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur from the French Government. 1997 – New ''Guinness Book of Records'' entry for the biggest concert ever with 3.5 million watching at Moscow's 850th anniversary

1998 – IFPI's Platinum Europe Award

2005 – HCA Ambassador for the Hans Christian Andersen 2005 Bicentenary Festival

2006 – Polish Television Academy's "Super Wiktor" award for "Space of Freedom"

2006 – Gdańsk's Man Of The Year 2005 Award

2007 – Eska Music Awards Special Award

2008 – Doctor Honoris Causa by the Mendeleev Russian University of Chemistry and Technology 2010 – MOJO Lifetime Achievement Award. 2010 – Grand Prix des Musiques Electroniques SACEM 2011 - International Cavalchina Award. 2011 - Awarded Officier de la Légion d'Honneur from the French Government.

An asteroid, 4422 Jarre, has been named in his honour. He is honorary citizen of Gdansk.

Discography

Jarre has sold an estimated 80 million albums and singles, the first of which was the 1969 single "La Cage / Erosmachine". His first solo album, ''Deserted Palace'', was released in 1972, but it was the success of his 1976 album, ''Oxygène'', that catapulted him to international stardom. Until 2000 Jarre's output was entirely instrumental, but that year he released ''Métamorphoses'', his first vocal album.

;Studio albums

''Deserted Palace'' (1972)

''Les Granges Brûlées'' (1973)

''Oxygène'' (1976)

''Équinoxe'' (1978)

''Magnetic Fields'' (1981)

''Music for Supermarkets'' (1983)

''Zoolook'' (1984)

''Rendez-Vous'' (1986)

''Revolutions'' (1988)

''Waiting for Cousteau'' (1990)

''Chronologie'' (1993)

''Oxygène 7–13'' (1997)

''Métamorphoses'' (2000)

''Interior Music'' (2001)

''Sessions 2000'' (2002)

''Geometry of Love'' (2003)

''Téo & Téa'' (2007)

''Oxygène: New Master Recording'' (2007)

See also

List of Jean Michel Jarre concerts

List of Jean Michel Jarre compositions with multiple titles

References

;Notes

;Bibliography

External links

Official blog

Jean Michel Jarre – live@ Bucharest (review+photos)

Official collaborative photobase

Jarre Discography

Jarre Technologies Official Website with AeroSystem One IPhone Speaker Dock

Category:People from Lyon Category:French electronic musicians Category:New Age synthesizer players Category:New Age musicians Category:French keyboardists Category:French bloggers Category:Polydor Records artists Category:Epic Records artists Category:Rock keyboardists Category:Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Category:1948 births Category:Living people

ar:جان ميشال جار az:Jan Mişel Jarr be:Жан-Мішэль Жар be-x-old:Жан-Мішэль Жар bs:Jean Michel Jarre bg:Жан Мишел Жар ca:Jean Michel Jarre cs:Jean-Michel Jarre da:Jean-Michel Jarre de:Jean Michel Jarre et:Jean-Michel Jarre es:Jean-Michel Jarre eo:Jean Michel Jarre fa:ژان میشل ژار fr:Jean Michel Jarre hak:Jean Michel Jarre ko:장 미셸 자르 hy:Ժան Միշել Ժառ id:Jean Michel Jarre it:Jean Michel Jarre he:ז'אן מישל ז'אר ka:ჟან-მიშელ ჟარი lv:Žans Mišels Žārs lb:Jean Michel Jarre lt:Jean Michel Jarre hu:Jean Michel Jarre mk:Жан Мишел Жар nl:Jean-Michel Jarre ja:ジャン・ミッシェル・ジャール no:Jean-Michel Jarre nds:Jean Michel Jarre pl:Jean-Michel Jarre pt:Jean Michel Jarre ro:Jean Michel Jarre ru:Жарр, Жан-Мишель sq:Jean Michel Jarre sk:Jean-Michel Jarre sl:Jean Michel Jarre sr:Žan Mišel Žar sh:Jean Michel Jarre fi:Jean-Michel Jarre sv:Jean Michel Jarre tt:Жан-Мишель Жарр th:ฌ็อง มีแชล ฌาร์ tr:Jean Michel Jarre uk:Жан-Мішель Жарр zh:让-米歇尔·雅尔

name	Jack Herer
other names	"The Hemperor"
birth date	June 18, 1939
birth place	New York City, New York,United States
death date	April 15, 2010
death place	Eugene, Oregon,United States
occupation	Cannabis activist
website	jackherer.com
footnotes	}}

Jack Herer (June 18, 1939 – April 15, 2010) was an American cannabis activist and the author of ''The Emperor Wears No Clothes'', a book which has been used in efforts to decriminalize cannabis.

Biography

A former Goldwater Republican, Herer was a pro-cannabis (marijuana) and hemp activist. He wrote two books, the aforementioned ''The Emperor Wears No Clothes'' and ''Grass''. There has also been a documentary made about his life called, ''The Emperor of Hemp''. He believed that the cannabis plant should be decriminalized because it has been shown to be a renewable source of fuel, food, and medicine that can be grown in virtually any part of the world. He further asserts that the U.S. government deliberately hides the proof of this.

A specific strain of cannabis has been named after Jack Herer in honor of his work. This strain has won several awards, including the 7th High Times Cannabis Cup. Jack Herer was also inducted into the Counterculture Hall of Fame at the 16th Cannabis Cup in recognition of his first book.

Herer ran for United States President twice, in 1988 (1,949 votes) and 1992 (3,875 votes) as the Grassroots Party candidate.

Health problems and death

In July 2000, Herer suffered a minor heart attack and a major stroke, resulting in difficulties speaking and moving the right side of his body. Herer mostly recovered, and claimed in May 2004 that treatment with the amanita muscaria, a psychoactive mushroom was the "secret".

On September 12, 2009 Herer suffered another heart attack while backstage at the Hempstalk Festival in Portland, Oregon. He spent nearly a month in critical condition in a Portland hospital, including several days in a medically induced coma. He was discharged to another facility on October 13, 2009. Paul Stanford of The Hemp and Cannabis Foundation said "He is waking up and gazing appropriately when someone is talking... but he is not really communicating in any way." He died aged 70 on April 15, 2010 in Eugene, Oregon, from complications related to the September 2009 heart attack. Herer was buried at the Eden Memorial Park Cemetery in Mission Hills, California.

Criticism

European experts on hemp, like Dr. Hayo M.G. van der Werf author of the doctoral thesis Crop physiology of fibre hemp (1994) and Dr. Ivan Bûcsa, criticized Herer' for making unrealistic claims regarding the potential of hemp, for example:

- Herer claimed that hemp produces higher yields than other crops. Van der Werf argue that is simply wrong. Under most favorable growing conditions, other crops such as maize, sugar beet or potato produced similar dry matter yields. Fiber hemp is in no way exceptional. Se also Hemp#Yield in modern agriculture

- Herer claimed that hemp hurds, which make up 60 to 80 % of the stem dry weight, contain 77 % cellulose. Van der Werf argue that is wrong. Cellulose content of hemp hurds has been found to vary between 32 and 38 % (Bedetti and Ciaralli 1976, van der Werf 1994). Possibly, Herer confused the hurds, which form the woody core of the hemp stem, with the bark, which forms the outer layer of the hemp stem. The bark contains the long bast fibers which are used in textile manufacturing.

- Herer claimed that hemp could be grown on 6 million hectares in the European Union, something that should have produced millions of tons of hemp fiber. The present production of hemp fiber in EU is only around 0.023 million ton/year.Dr. Ivan Bûcsa argue that it was a great exaggeration to expect millions of tons since it is not worth transporting unprocessed hemp more than 40-50 km even in bales.

References

External links

Official site

Erowid Jack Herer Vault

Jack Herer, Emperor of Hemp, Passes Away The 420 Times

Category:1939 births Category:2010 deaths Category:Deaths from myocardial infarction Category:American non-fiction writers Category:American cannabis activists Category:United States presidential candidates, 1988 Category:United States presidential candidates, 1992 Category:Grassroots Party politicians Category:Jewish activists Category:American Jews

cs:Jack Herer de:Jack Herer es:Jack Herer (activista) fr:Jack Herer is:Jack Herer it:Jack Herer nl:Jack Herer pt:Jack Herer ru:Херер, Джек fi:Jack Herer

name	DJ Richie Rich
background	solo_singer
alias	Daddy Rich
origin	Brooklyn, New York
occupation	DJ, Record producer
genre	Hip hop
years active	1985–1994, 1999
label	Def Jam RecordsColumbia Records
website	}}

DJ Richie Rich (born Richard Lawson in Jamaica), is a former record producer and turntablist who was best known as a member of the New York-based rap trio 3rd Bass. He was also known as Daddy Rich. He was part of The "Supermen" DJ crew which also included other top DJs such as Scratch, Clark Kent, Miz, Supreme, and Alladin. Rich also appeared in the movie "Juice" in the DJ battle scene, and recorded the scratches for the soundtrack. While working with Third Bass, he was one of the first DJs ever to do a DJ trick routine on TV when they appeared on the ''Arsenio Hall'' show.

Lawson hooked up with MC Serch and Pete Nice in 1987 to form the rap group 3 the Hard Way, which later became 3rd Bass. After releasing two albums in 1989 and 1991, the group split in 1992. Rich and Pete Nice collaborated on their only release together, the 1993 album ''Dust to Dust'', which peaked at #171 on the Billboard 200, #50 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and #3 on the Top Heatseekers.

Rich produced the track "I'm Kurious" for Kurious Jorge's 1994 debut, ''A Constipated Monkey'', before leaving the music business. He resurfaced briefly in 1999 on The Madd Rapper's album ''Tell 'Em Why U Madd'', providing scratches for the single "Dot Vs. TMR."

Rich also attended Farmingdale State College in Long Island.

Discography

3rd Bass

''The Cactus Album'', 1989

''Cactus Revisited'', 1990

''Derelicts of Dialect'', 1991

With Pete Nice

''Dust to Dust'', 1993

Production

"I'm Kurious" from the Kurious Jorge album ''A Constipated Monkey'' , 1994

"Dot Vs. TMR" from the The Madd Rapper album ''Tell 'Em Why U Madd'', 1999

References

Category:Def Jam Recordings artists Category:People from Brooklyn Category:Musicians from New York City Richie Rich, DJ Category:Living people Category:Farmingdale State College